Andrew Johnson’s impeachment stands as one of the most significant and controversial events in American political history. The impeachment of the 17th president of the United States is marked by political conflict, bitter debates, and a stark reminder of the tensions that existed in the post-Civil War era. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Andrew Johnson’s impeachment, examining the reasons behind it, the key events leading to the impeachment trial, and its lasting significance in American politics.
Introduction: The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson’s impeachment trial in 1868 is a crucial chapter in the history of American politics. It is the only impeachment of a U.S. president in the 19th century, and it almost led to his removal from office. Johnson’s impeachment is often discussed in the context of Reconstruction, the period following the Civil War during which the U.S. government struggled with how to reintegrate the Southern states and address the newly freed Black population’s rights. Johnson’s presidency was characterized by conflict, controversy, and a clash of ideologies regarding the post-war future of the United States.
Andrew Johnson: A Brief Overview of His Presidency
Before delving into the impeachment, it’s important to understand the man at the center of the drama. Andrew Johnson was born in 1808 in Raleigh, North Carolina, into poverty. He rose to prominence through his work as a tailor and eventually entered politics, serving as mayor, governor, congressman, and senator from Tennessee. As a Southern Democrat, Johnson was a staunch Unionist during the Civil War, remaining loyal to the Union even though Tennessee seceded from it. His loyalty to the Union led to his selection as Abraham Lincoln’s vice president in 1864.
After Lincoln’s assassination in April 1865, Johnson became president during one of the most turbulent periods in American history. He inherited the immense challenge of managing the post-Civil War reconstruction of the Southern states, which had been devastated by the war and its aftermath.
The Context of Impeachment: Reconstruction and Its Discontents
Johnson’s impeachment must be understood in the broader context of Reconstruction. After the Civil War, the U.S. government sought to reintegrate the Southern states, but there were significant differences over how to achieve this. President Abraham Lincoln had promoted a lenient approach, encouraging rapid reintegration through the Ten Percent Plan, which offered amnesty to Southern states that would swear allegiance to the Union. However, after Lincoln’s assassination, Johnson, who became president, took a similar but increasingly controversial approach to Reconstruction.
Johnson’s policies were lenient toward the South, allowing former Confederate leaders to return to power and granting pardons to many former Confederate soldiers and officials. His approach angered many in the Republican Party, who believed that the South should face more stringent penalties for secession and should be forced to grant civil rights to the newly freed slaves. This conflict between Johnson and the Radical Republicans in Congress would be a key factor in the impeachment.
Reasons for Impeachment: The Political Struggles of the Reconstruction Era
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was driven by several political and ideological factors. At the heart of the conflict was Johnson’s opposition to the Republican-controlled Congress’s vision of Reconstruction, which was far more aggressive than his own approach. The key reasons for his impeachment are outlined below:
1. Conflict Over Reconstruction Policies
One of the central reasons for Johnson’s impeachment was his disagreement with Congress over how to handle Reconstruction. Johnson advocated for a lenient approach, which he believed would quickly restore the Southern states to the Union. However, Radical Republicans wanted a much harsher policy. They sought to ensure that the Southern states would be forced to grant civil rights to Black Americans and were unwilling to allow the former Confederate leadership to regain political power.
The Radical Republicans passed the Reconstruction Acts of 1867, which divided the South into military districts and required Southern states to ratify the 14th Amendment (granting citizenship and equal protection to all persons born or naturalized in the United States) before they could be readmitted to the Union. Johnson strongly opposed these measures, viewing them as unconstitutional and an overreach of federal power.
2. The Tenure of Office Act
The immediate catalyst for Johnson’s impeachment was the passage of the Tenure of Office Act in 1867. This law, passed by Congress, aimed to restrict the president’s power to remove certain officeholders without the Senate’s approval. Specifically, it was designed to protect Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War, who was a holdover from the Lincoln administration and a staunch ally of the Radical Republicans.
Johnson believed the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional, as it restricted his authority to manage his own cabinet. In 1868, he took the bold step of removing Stanton from office and attempting to replace him with Lorenzo Thomas, a Johnson supporter. The Senate, however, did not approve of this action, leading to the charge that Johnson had violated the Tenure of Office Act.
3. Johnson’s Disdain for Radical Republicans
Andrew Johnson’s personal animosity toward the Radical Republicans also contributed to his impeachment. He had a deep distrust of these lawmakers and often engaged in inflammatory rhetoric against them. Johnson referred to them as “traitors” and frequently used derogatory language to describe his opponents. His combative style and lack of political finesse alienated many members of Congress, and his inability to reconcile with the Republicans only escalated the conflict.
Johnson’s refusal to cooperate with Congress on key issues, particularly his opposition to the 14th Amendment and his veto of civil rights legislation, further aggravated the situation. His failure to address the concerns of the Radical Republicans ultimately led them to seek his removal from office.
The Impeachment Trial: A Political Drama
In February 1868, the House of Representatives voted to impeach Andrew Johnson. The impeachment articles charged him with violating the Tenure of Office Act and bringing disrepute to the office of the presidency. The vote passed by a narrow margin, with 126 in favor of impeachment and 47 against. Johnson became the first sitting U.S. president to be impeached, and his fate now rested with the Senate.
The impeachment trial began in March 1868, and it quickly became a highly charged political drama. The Senate was divided, with Republicans largely supporting the impeachment and Democrats opposing it. Johnson’s defense team argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and that his actions in removing Stanton were justified. On the other hand, the prosecution presented the argument that Johnson’s actions were a violation of the law and an abuse of presidential power.
Throughout the trial, Johnson’s opponents pushed for his removal from office, but his defenders countered that impeachment should not be used as a political tool to remove a president simply because of policy disagreements. The trial lasted for several months and featured intense debates, dramatic speeches, and political maneuvering.
1. The Outcome of the Trial
On May 16, 1868, the Senate voted on the articles of impeachment. To remove a president from office, a two-thirds majority vote was required. The final vote on the first article of impeachment (charging Johnson with violating the Tenure of Office Act) was 35 in favor of conviction and 19 against. This was one vote short of the two-thirds majority needed for removal. A similar outcome occurred on the other articles of impeachment.
As a result, Andrew Johnson was acquitted and remained in office. However, his political power was greatly diminished, and he became a lame-duck president for the remainder of his term.
Significance of Johnson’s Impeachment
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson holds lasting significance in the history of American politics, particularly in the context of the post-Civil War Reconstruction period.
1. A Precedent for Impeachment
Although Johnson was acquitted, his impeachment set an important precedent in American political history. It established that a president could be impeached and tried in the Senate for misconduct, even if that misconduct was largely based on political disagreements. While Johnson’s impeachment did not result in his removal, it demonstrated that the system of checks and balances could be used to hold a president accountable for his actions.
2. Strengthening of the Congressional Power
The impeachment of Johnson also highlighted the growing power of Congress, particularly the Radical Republicans. Their success in impeaching Johnson (even if he was not removed from office) reinforced the idea that Congress had the constitutional authority to oversee the actions of the executive branch. This marked a shift in the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches.
3. Impact on Reconstruction
Johnson’s impeachment and acquittal had a direct impact on the course of Reconstruction. After the trial, Johnson was politically weakened, and Congress took further steps to assert its authority over the Reconstruction process. The Radical Republicans were able to pass the Reconstruction Acts, and in the years that followed, the 14th and 15th Amendments were ratified, extending civil rights and voting rights to Black Americans.
4. The Legacy of Presidential Impeachment
Johnson’s impeachment became a model for later presidential impeachments. Although no president was impeached again until the 20th century, the impeachment process was later invoked in the cases of Presidents Richard Nixon (1974) and Bill Clinton (1998). The Johnson impeachment remains a landmark event in understanding the powers and limits of the presidency.
Conclusion: A Divisive Moment in American History
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson stands as a divisive moment in American history. It was rooted in the bitter political and ideological battles of Reconstruction, and it reflects the deep divisions in the United States during the post-Civil War era. Johnson’s impeachment trial was not just about his actions but also about the larger struggle for control of the nation’s future direction. Although Johnson was acquitted, the impeachment process itself revealed the tensions between the executive and legislative branches of government, and it set important precedents for future impeachment proceedings.
Today, Johnson’s impeachment is remembered as a cautionary tale about the dangers of political polarization and the potential for impeachment to be used as a weapon in partisan struggles. It remains a powerful reminder of the complexities of American democracy and the role of checks and balances in preserving the integrity of the nation’s political system.
